Agriculture – Chapter 4 Class 10 Geography (NCERT)

Agriculture is Chapter 4 Class 10 Geography (Contemporary India – II). It explains the importance of farming in India and the types of farming practiceprimitive, intensive, and commercial. The chapter covers the cropping seasons (Rabi, Kharif, Zaid) and major crops like rice, wheat, millets, pulses, sugarcane, tea, coffee, cotton, and jute. It also highlights agricultural reforms such as land reforms, Green Revolution, MSP, and the Bhoodan – Gramdan movement, showing the vital role of agriculture in India’s economy and food security. Below are complete this chapter aligned with NCERT, RBSE and CBSE board exam patterns.

India is an agriculturally important country, where nearly two-thirds of the population depends directly or indirectly on farming for their livelihood. Agriculture is a primary activity as it provides the majority of the food grains we consume and also supplies essential raw materials for other industries.

Types of Farming

Farming in India ranges from subsistence agriculture meant for family needs to commercial farming aimed at market. At present, three types of farming are practiced in our country:

A. Primitive Subsistence Farming

A very old type of farming practiced on small patches of land using primitive tools like hoe, dao, and digging sticks, along with family or community labour. Features of this farming:

1. Depends on Monsoon rains, natural soil fertility, and local environmental conditions.
2. Productivity is low (Due to no use of fertilizers or modern inputs).
3. Mainly done to meet the family’s food needs (not for sale).

Method

Farmers clear a patch of land by cutting and burning the vegetation. The ash left behind makes the soil temporarily fertile for growing crops. They cultivate crops on this agriculture land for a few years. When the soil loses its fertility, they move to a new patch. The old land is left to recover naturally. Because of this practice, the method is known as Slash and Burn Agriculture.

Diffent Local Names of Slash and Burn Agriculture in India

1. Jhumming: Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland
2. Bewar/Dahiya: Madhya Pradesh
3. Podu/Penda: Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
4. Kumari: Western Ghats
5. Khil: Himalayan belt
6. Kuruwa: Jharkhand

Global Names of Slash and Burn Agriculture

1. Milpa: Mexico and Central America
2. Conuco: Venezuela
3. Roca: Brazil
4. Ladang: Indonesia
5. Ray: Vietnam

B. Intensive Subsistence Farming

Intensive subsistence farming is a type of agriculture in practised in regions where the population is very high compared to the available land. Since land is limited and divided into small plots due to the right of inheritance, farmers use every bit of land as efficiently as possible. Features of this farming:

1. It is labour-intensive farming and requires a large number of workers.
2. Farmers use high doses of fertilizers, irrigation and biochemical inputs to increase crop yied.
3. Farming land becomes smaller and smaller due to right of inheritance.
4. The main aim is to get the maximum output from small landholdings.
5. Despite small farm size, farmers continue cultivating intensively because they have no alternative source of livelihood.
6. This creates huge pressure on agriculture land.
7. Examples: UP, Bhiar, West Bengal and Other densely populated areas.

C. Commercial Farming

Commercial farming is a type of agriculture where crops are grown mainly for sale in the market and to earn profit, not just for family consumption. Features of this farming:

1. Use of modern inputs: High yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides and irrigation.
2. High productivity due to scientific methods and technology.
3. Large scale farming, sometimes with the help of migrant labour.
4. Market oriented: Crops are grown to be sold.
5. Degree of commercialization varies from one region to another. Example: Rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but in Odisha, it is subsistence crop.

Plantation Farming

Plantation farming is a type of commercial farming in which a single crop is grown on a large area using modern techniques and inputs. Features are:

• Single crop cultivation on a large scale.
• Requires capital investment, modern inputs and migrant labour.
• This farming has an interface between agriculture and industry. It means crops grown in this farming are mainly used as raw materials in industries such tea industry, textile industry and sugar industry.
• Developement of plantation farming requires a well developed transport and communication network to connect plantations area wtih processing industries and markets.
• Examples: Tea in Assam and north bengal. Coffee in Karnataka, Banana in southern parts of india and bamboo in north east parts.

Cropping Pattern

Agriculture in India varies because of physical diversity like soil, climate, and rainfall, and cultural plurality like different food habits and traditions. Together, these factors decides which crops are grown in different regions of the country. Different types of crops are grown such as food crops (rice, wheat, millets, maize, pulses, sugarcane, oil seeds, tea, coffee, vegetables, fruits) and non food crops (rubber, Cotton, jute etc).

Cropping Season

Cropping season refers to the period of sowing and harvesting crops in a year. In India, cropping seasons are mainly determined by climate, rainfall, and temperature. Based on these factors, the agriculture year is divided into three major cropping seasons: Rabi, Kharif, and Zaid, each suitable for growing different types of crops.

1. Rabi Season

• Sowing: October-December (In Winter)
• Harvesting: April-June (In Summer)
• Rabi Crops: Wheat, barley, gram, peas, mustard
• Regions: Punjab, Haryana, UP, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh.
• Key Factors for Success:
  • Winter rainfall from Western Disturbances.
  • Green Revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western UP, parts of Rajasthan.

2. Kharif Season

• Sowing: June-July (Onset of monsoon)
• Harvesting: September-October.
• Kharif Crops: Paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut, soyabean.
• Regions: Assam, West Bengal, Odisha (coastal), Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra (Konkan), Uttar Pradesh, Bihar.
• Other Points:
  • Recently, Punjab and Haryana have also become major paddy producers.
  • In Assam, West Bengal, and Odisha, there are three crops of paddy are grown in year. These are Aus (Summer paddy), Aman (Winter paddy) and Boro (Spring paddy).

3. Zaid Season

• Short season during summer months between Rabi and Kharif.
• Sowing: Around March (Summer)
• Harvest: June (Before Monsoon)
• Zaid Crop: Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops.
• Sugarcane takes alomost a year to mature, so it overlaps across seasons.

Major Crops

1. Rice

• Rice is the staple food (main food) for the majority of indians.
• India is the second largest producer of rice after China.
• It is a Kharif crop.
• Climatic Requirements: High temperature (above 25°C), high humidity, and annual rainfall above 100 cm. In areas of low rainfall, it is grown with the help of irrigation.
• Regions of Cultivation: Plains of north and north-eastern India, Coastal areas and Deltaic regions.
• Development of canal irrigation and tube wells ahs enabled rice cultivation in less rainfall regions as Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Rajasthan.

2. Wheat

• Second most important cereal crop of India.
• Main food crop in north and north-western parts of the country.
• It is a Rabi crop.
• Climatic requirement: Cool temperature at growing stage. Need slightly warm temperatures with bright sunshine at the timing of ripening. 50-75 cm annual rainfall.
• Two main wheat growing zones:
  1. Ganga-Satluj plains (north-west)
  2. Black soil region of Decaan.
• Major wheat producing states: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.

3. Millets

• Important Millets: Jowar, Bajra and Ragi.
• Millets are coarse grains (Hard grains) but are higly nutritious. For example: Ragi is rich in iron, calcium, micronutrients and roughage.
• Jowar
  • Third most important food crop in area and production.
  • Rain-fed crop, mostly grown in moist area (Hardly needs irrigation).
  • Major States: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh.
• Bajra
  • Grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soils.
  • Major states: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana.
• Ragi
  • Suitable for dry regions.
  • Grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy, and shallow black soils.
  • Major states: Karnataka, Tamil nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Arunchal Pradesh.

4. Maize

• Maize is used both as food and fodder.
• It is a kharif crop but also grown in Rabi season in states like Bihar.
• Climatic Requirements: Requires temperature between 21^oC – 27^oC.
• Grows well in old alluvial soil.
• Modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilizers and irrigation have boosted its production.
• Major Producing States: Karnataka, MP, UP, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

4. Pulses

• India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world.
• Pulses are the main source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
• Kharif Pulses: Tur (Arhar), Urad, Moong.
• Rabi Pulses: Gram, Masur, Peas.
• Climatic Needs: Require less moisture and can grow in dry conditions.
• All pulses perform nitrogen fixation and restore soil fetility (Exception: Arhar). Due to this they are usually grown in rotation with other crops.
• Major Producing States: MP, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, UP and Karnataka.

5. Sugarcane

• Sugarcane can grow in both tropical regions and subtropical region.
• India is the second largest producer after Brazil.
• Neither a pure Rabi nor a pure Kharif crop. It is a long duration crop.
• Climatic Requirements: Hot and humid climate with temperature 21^oC to 27^oC and 75-100 cm annual rainfall. Requires irrigation in low rainfall areas.
• Can grow variety of soils.
• Need manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
• Sugarcane is main source of sugar, gur (Jaggery), khandsari and molasses.
• Major Producing States: UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

6. Oil Seeds

• Oidseeds cover about 12% of the total cropped area in India.
• Main oilseeds crops: Groundnut, Mustard, Sesamum (Til), Soyabean, Castor seeds, Cotton seeds, Linseed, Sunflower.
• Most of oilseeds are edible (used as cooking oil) and some are non-edible (Used as raw material for soap, cosmetics, ointments.
• Groundnut:
  • Kharif crop.
  • 50% of total oilseed production.
  • Gujarat is largest producer of Groundnut. Next large producer are Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
  • India is largest producer of groundnut after china.
• Linseed and Mustard: Rabi Crop.
• Sesamum: Kharif in North India and Rabi in South India.
• Castor Seed: Grown both as Rabi and Kharif.

7. Tea

• Tea is a Plantation Crop.
• It is beverage crop.
• The British introduced it in Inida, but today Indian own and manage most of the tea plantations.
• India is second largest producer of tea after china.
• Climatic Requirements: Tropical and sub-tropical climate. Warm, moist, frost-free climate thorughout year. Frequent and evently distributed rainfall for continuous leaf growth.
• Deep, fertile, well-drained soil rich in humus and organic matter.
• Tea is a labour intenstive industry. It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour. (Requires a lot of skilled but low-cost workers for plucking leaves, processing, and maintenance, as these tasks are done by hand.)
• Tea is processed within the tea garden to preserve freshness.
• Major Producing States: Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri hills), Tamil Nadu, Kerala.

8. Coffee

• Indian coffee is famous worldwide for its good quality.
• The most popular type and most demanded type is the Arabic variety, originally brough from Yemen.
• Coffee cultivation in India started on the Baba Budan Hills.
• Major Producing States: Karnataka (Nilgiri hills), Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

9. Horticulture Crops

• Horticulture crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants.
• India is second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.
• India grows both tropical and temperate fruits.
• Mangoes: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, UP, West Bengal.
• Organes: Maharashtra (Nagpur), Meghalaya (Cherrapunjee).
• Bananas: Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.
• Litchi and Guava: UP, Bihar.
• Pineapples: Meghalaya.
• Grapes: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra.
• Apples, Pears, Apricots, Walnuts: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh.
• India is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.

10. Rubber

• An equitorial crop, also grown in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
• Climatic Requirements: Moist and humid climate, Rainfall > 200 cm and Temperature above 25^oC.
• Uses: Important industrial raw material.
• Major Producing States: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Meghalaya (Garo Hills).

Fibres Crops

• Major fibre crops in India: Cotton, Jute, Hemp and Natural Silk.
• Cotton, Jute and Hemp obtained from plants.
• Silk obtained from silkworm cocoons (fed on mulberry leaves).
• Rearing of silkworms is called Sericulture.

11. Cotton

• India is the origial home of cotton and second largest producer after China.
• Climatic Requirements: High temperature, Light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days, bright sunshine.
• Soil: Black cotton soil (Like Deccan Plateau).
• It is Kharif Crop and take 6-8 months to mature.
• Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh.

12. Jute (Golden Fibre)

• Cimatic Requirements: High temperature during growth.
• Well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year.
• Major Producing States: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Meghalaya.
• Uses: Gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets, handicrafts.

Technology and Institutional Reforms

• Technological Reforms: Introduction of modern farming techniques, equipment and scientific methods of farming.
• Institutional Reforms: Changes in land ownership patterns, credit systems, and support structures for farmers.

Why were Reforms Needed?

• Agriculture practiced for thousand of years without major changes.
• Over 60% of India’s population depends on agriculture for livelihood.
• Most farmers still dependent on monsoon and natural fertility.
• These traditional methods and lack of technological and institution changes. They slow down agricultural development.
• Growing population creating pressure on agricultural resources.

Phase – 1: Institutional Reforms (Post-Independence)

After Independence, government focused on improving land ownership and structure of farmland. For this government focused on four main insititutional reforms: Abolition of zamindari, collectivisation, consolidation of holdings and cooperations.

• End of Zamindari System: Zamindars acted as tax collectors between farmers and the British administration. The system was removed to end farmer exploitation.
• Collectivation: Many farmer’s lands are pooled their small land together and farm it as one large field. All resources and ownership are shared between them.
• Consolidation: One farmer’s scattered plots are merged into one big farm to make farming easy.
• Cooperation: Farmers remains owners of their own land. They worked together and share resources like buying seeds, fertilizers or selling crops together.

‘Land Reforms’ was main focus of our First Five Year Plan. The righ of inheritance led to fragmentation of land holdings. The laws of land reforms were made, but implementation was not effective.

Phase – 2: Technological Reforms (1960s-1970s)

• Green Revolution: A major technological turning point. It was based on package technology and package included:
  1. High-Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds.
  2. Use of Chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
  3. Irrigation (canals, tubewells, pumpsets)
  4. Modern machinery (tractors, harvesters).
• White Revolution (Operational Flood): Rapid increase in milk production (flood of milk production) through modern methods, better breeds of cattle and improved dairy farming practices.
• These reforms increased agricultural production, but their benefits were limited to only a few regions.

Phase – 3: Comprehensive Development (1980s-1990s and onwards)

In this government launched broader programs that combined both institutional and technical support.

• Crop Insurance: To protect farmers against losses from drought, floods, cyclone, fire and disease.
• Credit Facilities: Establishing Grameen banks, cooperative societies, and commercial banks to provide farmers with easy loans at low interest rates.
• Kisan Credit Card (KCC): A special credit card allows farmers to get short-term loans easily for their cultivation needs.
• Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS): Provide insurance cover to farmers in case of accidents.
• Minimum Support Price (MSP): The government annouces a minimum price for certain crops before the sowing season. This guarantees farmers a minimum profit and protects them from maket price crashes and middlemen.
• Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers on radio and TV.